The changing role and nature of the nation-state
Politics refers to the debates around governance that people undertake and, by its nature, is often quite adversarial in nature. When discussing political geographies, we are looking for spatial patterns and variation in political ideas. Geographers might also look at how politics shapes and reshapes the places and borders of our world.
The current basic unit of political Geography is arguably the Nation-State. The United Nations currently recognises 195 Nation-States in the world. However, the term Nation-State is often used interchangeably, and incorrectly, with other terms like Nation, State and Country.
The current basic unit of political Geography is arguably the Nation-State. The United Nations currently recognises 195 Nation-States in the world. However, the term Nation-State is often used interchangeably, and incorrectly, with other terms like Nation, State and Country.
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The map to the left shows a political map of Australia prior to 1788 with the approximate boundaries of indigenous language and identity.
The painting above (From the Cape to Cairo, 1998) clearly represents how people of the British empire thought of their role in conquering new lands around the world. |
Prior to the contemporary system of Nation-States we see today, empires or city-states used military and economic force to determine the limits of their control. Parts of world which did not fall under imperial control were managed by the vast diversity of indigenous peoples who often used highly traditional, tribal systems of politics.
However, the relatively new concept of Nation-States emerged from the middle of the 17th Century in Europe. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia resulted from a combination of two peace treaties signed between the major European powers to bring an end to years of bitter warfare. Importantly, the Westphalian Peace established important principals of inviolability of borders and non-interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states. At this time, Nations and States were often formed along ethnic lines, which promoted the concept of ethnic nationalism, for example we might assume that France represents areas with "French people". In reality however, all states have always contained cultural diversity.
From the beginning of the 20th Century, Nation-States began to draw on the political power of nationalism to promote their political interests abroad and build colonial empires. European colonial powers began to recognise the need for a higher level of governance at the global scale which could be used to settle disputes without warfare. The League of Nations was created, somewhat unsuccessfully, and following the devastation of World War 2 this evolved into the United Nations. Nations began to cede some of their sovereign power in order to build treaties which would ensure peace and stability in a world order.
In the Post WW2 era, Nation-States often sought a social contract whereby the state would build infrastructure and ensure work for people in exchange for civil behaviour. This era produced the concept of the Welfare State. In this period the First World nations looked to Capitalism to produce wealth, while the Second World nations looked to Communism as an alternative ideology to manage the distribution of wealth. The important role of global superpowers which had the ability to project military and soft power around the globe emerged at this time.
After the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, liberal democracies and neo-liberal economic ideas stated to emerge as the dominant ideology. In some parts of the world, Nation-States began to cede a degree of sovereign power to form Supranational organisations, such as the European Union (EU) or North-American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) in order to promote greater volumes of trade. This remains controversial as some people have rejected the advantages bought by greater integration, particularly due to a perception of uncontrolled immigration. This has seen the United Kingdom formally withdraw (Bexit) from the EU in 2021.
Today, the world is somewhat split between open liberal democracies and authoritarian systems, such as China. Increasingly, "non-state actors" such as Trans-National Corporations (TNCs), terrorist organisations and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have all been able to demonstrate increasing power that challenges the concept of the Nation-State and its Sovereignty.
However, the relatively new concept of Nation-States emerged from the middle of the 17th Century in Europe. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia resulted from a combination of two peace treaties signed between the major European powers to bring an end to years of bitter warfare. Importantly, the Westphalian Peace established important principals of inviolability of borders and non-interference in the domestic affairs of sovereign states. At this time, Nations and States were often formed along ethnic lines, which promoted the concept of ethnic nationalism, for example we might assume that France represents areas with "French people". In reality however, all states have always contained cultural diversity.
From the beginning of the 20th Century, Nation-States began to draw on the political power of nationalism to promote their political interests abroad and build colonial empires. European colonial powers began to recognise the need for a higher level of governance at the global scale which could be used to settle disputes without warfare. The League of Nations was created, somewhat unsuccessfully, and following the devastation of World War 2 this evolved into the United Nations. Nations began to cede some of their sovereign power in order to build treaties which would ensure peace and stability in a world order.
In the Post WW2 era, Nation-States often sought a social contract whereby the state would build infrastructure and ensure work for people in exchange for civil behaviour. This era produced the concept of the Welfare State. In this period the First World nations looked to Capitalism to produce wealth, while the Second World nations looked to Communism as an alternative ideology to manage the distribution of wealth. The important role of global superpowers which had the ability to project military and soft power around the globe emerged at this time.
After the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1990s, liberal democracies and neo-liberal economic ideas stated to emerge as the dominant ideology. In some parts of the world, Nation-States began to cede a degree of sovereign power to form Supranational organisations, such as the European Union (EU) or North-American Free Trade Area (NAFTA) in order to promote greater volumes of trade. This remains controversial as some people have rejected the advantages bought by greater integration, particularly due to a perception of uncontrolled immigration. This has seen the United Kingdom formally withdraw (Bexit) from the EU in 2021.
Today, the world is somewhat split between open liberal democracies and authoritarian systems, such as China. Increasingly, "non-state actors" such as Trans-National Corporations (TNCs), terrorist organisations and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have all been able to demonstrate increasing power that challenges the concept of the Nation-State and its Sovereignty.
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The political world map
A political world map shows the borders of Nation-States. Although Geographers are usually very familiar with the political world map and the 195 odd nations it contains, this map is actually more fluid and contested than we often assume. |
The increasing influence of international governance, transnational corporations and non-government organisations (NGOs) as challenges to national sovereignty
Non-state actors have increasing influence and power allowing them to readily challenge the sovereignty. This may be derived from the economic power they are able to exert, the cultural influence they can wield or the moral witness they can bring to bear. These are best explored through the use of illustrative case studies.
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Transnational Corporations (TNCs)
The economic scale of TNCs means that the largest companies in the world are often far wealthier than the vast majority of nations. The power of TNCs to invest, or suddenly withdraw their investment in a place can have dire consequences. Historically media outlets like News Corp have held enormous power during national debates and elections. However, more recently it is social media giants like Facebook and Twitter that are able to control debate through their ability to moderate public speech. |
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Non-Government Organisations (NGOs)
NGOs are able to use their resources to research and provide unbiased commentary about the actions of TNCs and Nation-States. This can result in mounting public opinion forcing Nation-States to act. Research by Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International has been used by nations to condemn the Chinese government for their treatment of the Uyghur minority in Xin Jiang province. Similarly, monitoring and and advertising by Greenpeace was important in getting the French Government to stop nuclear testing of atomic weapons in the Pacific Ocean. |
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International Governance
There are two main sources of international governance, the main one being the United Nations. However, nation-states are increasingly participating in smaller supra-national blocs.
The loss of sovereignty that results from international governance has promoted an organised and vocal resistance from far-right political groups around the world. Anti-Immigration groups exploit local fears about excessive immigration, loss of social cohesion and national identity.
There are two main sources of international governance, the main one being the United Nations. However, nation-states are increasingly participating in smaller supra-national blocs.
The loss of sovereignty that results from international governance has promoted an organised and vocal resistance from far-right political groups around the world. Anti-Immigration groups exploit local fears about excessive immigration, loss of social cohesion and national identity.
Source: Nagle, G. and Cooke, B. (2017) Geography for the IB, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
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As many of these challenges are entirely new, Nation-States have often be caught out with systems of monitoring or laws to effectively combat the influence that TNCs or NGOs can have. However, it is also important to note that other threats also exist. Since 2001, the world has recognised the increasing rise of terrorist organisations. Moreover, powerfully wealthy individuals like the Koch family or Gina Rinehart also have the ability to sway national conversations about climate Justice or religious freedoms.
The causes of political tensions and conflict, economic instability, and migration and mobility of people
For many of the political debates in More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs) personal attitudes will depend on whether people consider themselves to be politically right wing or politically left wing. People may also favour a socially conservative approach or a socially progressive approach.
In Newly Industrialised Countries and Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) governments are frequently less democratic, more corrupt and more likely to tend towards authoritarianism in nature.
In Newly Industrialised Countries and Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs) governments are frequently less democratic, more corrupt and more likely to tend towards authoritarianism in nature.
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Question around economic management and taxation are frequent sources of political conflict. The fair distribution of resources in societies remains an unsolved challenge for people. The debate about taxation has become particularly problematic in a globalised world in which wealth can easily be moved to avoid fair taxation. Most societies have seen inequality rise dramatically over the last 50 years resulting in further tension.
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Increasing competition for resources such as food, water and energy is likely to drive political tension and conflicts into the future. Changing climate is like to amplify this competition by increasing variability and reducing existing resources.
Often anti-immigration sentiment is bound up in fears that additional people will place further pressure on economic and natural resources.
Often anti-immigration sentiment is bound up in fears that additional people will place further pressure on economic and natural resources.
In 1993, Samuel Huntington wrote The Clash of Civilisations in which he argued future world conflicts would be driven by clashes between cultural and religious ideology. In the conflicts following the September 11 terrorist attacks in the USA this theory gained great acceptance.
Differences in religious belief also continue to cause conflicts within developed nation-states such as recent conflicts of LGBTI+ or abortion rights.
Differences in religious belief also continue to cause conflicts within developed nation-states such as recent conflicts of LGBTI+ or abortion rights.
National and ethnic identities provide another source for conflict. In nation-states which had colonial origins, such as Iraq, Libya and Syria it is unclear whether they will be able to remain as functioning states. When such state fracture along ethnic lines it is known as "balkanisation".
The civil rights of people are a further source of political tension. In the USA the #Blacklivesmatter movement has come to signify the struggle black Americans feel must be made against racial injustice. In many countries of the world, indigenous peoples also strive for justice for their inequality and dispossession.
The civil rights of people are a further source of political tension. In the USA the #Blacklivesmatter movement has come to signify the struggle black Americans feel must be made against racial injustice. In many countries of the world, indigenous peoples also strive for justice for their inequality and dispossession.
The consequences of these challenges on national sovereignty, and the various paths towards resolving issues and meeting these challenges
One likely consequence of greater conflict on a global scale is an escalation in military spending in preparation for conflicts. This not only diverts spending from improving human wellbeing , it also promotes the likelihood of future conflicts and ecological impacts. Accompanying this slide in militarism is likely to be a rise in nationalism and/or tribalism which will make international governance increasingly difficult.
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Globally, the rise of a socially authoritarian China is demonstrating to the world that Authoritarian systems can be highly effective in improving material well being for people. The failure of leadership shown by Donald Trump in the USA has further weakened the case for liberal democracy.
However, a more hopeful future lies in the possibility of a more equal distribution of resources and the use of new technologies to overcome resources scarcity and environmental damage. This is likely to possible only with careful and strategic planning as a result of transparent and fully participatory democracies.
Further Reading
Interested in these ideas and want to learn more?
The texts below are a great starting point if you wish to learn more and build a broader perspective on political geographies.
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Marshall, T. (2016) Prisoners of Geography: 10 Maps that tell you everything you need to know about global politics.
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