The Ningaloo Coast is an interaction between Coral reef and Limestone Karst geology. Although the Great Barrier Reef tends to gain most of the nations focus, Australia's "other reef" is no less spectacular. Ningaloo Coast is placed at great risk by global changes to climate and ocean chemistry. However, it relatively low visitor numbers and remote location mean that it is in quite pristine condition which contributes to a high level of resilience.
1. Spatial Patterns and Dimensions
Location and Altitude
Ningaloo Coast is located 1200km North of Perth on the Western Australian Coast, in NW quadrant of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean (the only extensive reef system on a western coastline of a continent). The reefs latitude ranges from 21°42'14"S - 24° 1'52"S (one of the highest for reefs) the longitude is between 113°25'E - 114° 15'E.
The reef is found between 0m – -30m below mean sea level. In oceanic waters to the ecosystem reaches to 500m depth.
Ningaloo Coast is located 1200km North of Perth on the Western Australian Coast, in NW quadrant of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean (the only extensive reef system on a western coastline of a continent). The reefs latitude ranges from 21°42'14"S - 24° 1'52"S (one of the highest for reefs) the longitude is between 113°25'E - 114° 15'E.
The reef is found between 0m – -30m below mean sea level. In oceanic waters to the ecosystem reaches to 500m depth.
Size and shape
The Reef is narrow and extends along the West Australian coastline. The Ningaloo Reef area is marine however, Cape Range National Park runs along the land.
Ningaloo forms a fringing reef 290km along coastline. Marine park is 4587km2 (2326 km2 of commonwealth waters and 2261km2 of state waters. The World heritage listed property is 604 500ha (6045km2)or marine and terrestrial area, which demonstrates the integrated nature of ecosystem.
The Reef is narrow and extends along the West Australian coastline. The Ningaloo Reef area is marine however, Cape Range National Park runs along the land.
Ningaloo forms a fringing reef 290km along coastline. Marine park is 4587km2 (2326 km2 of commonwealth waters and 2261km2 of state waters. The World heritage listed property is 604 500ha (6045km2)or marine and terrestrial area, which demonstrates the integrated nature of ecosystem.
Continuity
The fringing reef is quite young, at only about 7-8000 years old. The karst landscape adjacent to the reef owes its geological origin to previous reef activity and sea level change.
The uplifted Neogene wave-cut terraces and fossil reefs which fringe Exmouth Peninsula and the submerged fossil reef terraces which form the substrate of the modern reef, in immediate juxtaposition with the undeformed modern Ningaloo Reef, and late Pleistocene Tantabiddi terrace, have outstanding heritage value
The fringing reef is quite young, at only about 7-8000 years old. The karst landscape adjacent to the reef owes its geological origin to previous reef activity and sea level change.
The uplifted Neogene wave-cut terraces and fossil reefs which fringe Exmouth Peninsula and the submerged fossil reef terraces which form the substrate of the modern reef, in immediate juxtaposition with the undeformed modern Ningaloo Reef, and late Pleistocene Tantabiddi terrace, have outstanding heritage value
2. Biophysical Interactions
Dynamics of weather and climate
Ningaloo has a hot and arid climate with an average annual temperature of 24.8°and precipitation of 260mm. This climate results in low run-off very high water quality for coral reef building.
The area is subject to regular tropical cyclones with events expected every 2-3 years (BOM, 2016). The most severe storm on Australian record was tropical cyclone Vance which struck Exmouth in 1999. Cyclones cause strong destructive winds in excess of 100km/h and high levels of precipitation.
Ningaloo has a hot and arid climate with an average annual temperature of 24.8°and precipitation of 260mm. This climate results in low run-off very high water quality for coral reef building.
The area is subject to regular tropical cyclones with events expected every 2-3 years (BOM, 2016). The most severe storm on Australian record was tropical cyclone Vance which struck Exmouth in 1999. Cyclones cause strong destructive winds in excess of 100km/h and high levels of precipitation.
Geomorphic and Hydromorphic Interactions
The Leeuwin and Ningaloo Currents are a major determinant in Ningaloo Reef's location. The Leeuwin Current draws warmer water from the north allowing Ningaloo's reef-building corals to flourish. Most reef building coral species grow optimally in water temperatures between 23°–29°Celsius (NOAA, 2016).
However, the Ningaloo current also brings cooler water from the south which combines with the latitude of the area to place it on an ecotone, between tropical and temperate waters. This results in the Ningaloo Coast hosting an unusual diversity of marine species.
The arid climate of is beneficial for coral. Most reef-building corals require very saline water ranging from 32 to 42 parts per thousand and water with very low turbidity to allow the maximum amount of light penetrates it.The average annual rainfall of 260mm supports these requirements.
The main terrestrial feature of the Ningaloo Coast is the extensive karst system which is the product of millions of years of marine fauna skeletons that were deposited in what is now ancient regressed seas and uplifted terrain. network of underground caves and water courses of the Cape Range. The karst system includes hundreds of separate features such as sinkholes, caves, dolines and subterranean water bodies and supports a rich diversity of highly specialised subterranean species (UNESCO, 2016).
Sediment formation on the Ningaloo coast is also highly biological as broken coral pieces are further eroded by wave action, Parrotfish “chew” coral and deliver fine sediment in their faces and mollusk shell pieces are eroded (Dudley, 2003).
The Leeuwin and Ningaloo Currents are a major determinant in Ningaloo Reef's location. The Leeuwin Current draws warmer water from the north allowing Ningaloo's reef-building corals to flourish. Most reef building coral species grow optimally in water temperatures between 23°–29°Celsius (NOAA, 2016).
However, the Ningaloo current also brings cooler water from the south which combines with the latitude of the area to place it on an ecotone, between tropical and temperate waters. This results in the Ningaloo Coast hosting an unusual diversity of marine species.
The arid climate of is beneficial for coral. Most reef-building corals require very saline water ranging from 32 to 42 parts per thousand and water with very low turbidity to allow the maximum amount of light penetrates it.The average annual rainfall of 260mm supports these requirements.
The main terrestrial feature of the Ningaloo Coast is the extensive karst system which is the product of millions of years of marine fauna skeletons that were deposited in what is now ancient regressed seas and uplifted terrain. network of underground caves and water courses of the Cape Range. The karst system includes hundreds of separate features such as sinkholes, caves, dolines and subterranean water bodies and supports a rich diversity of highly specialised subterranean species (UNESCO, 2016).
Sediment formation on the Ningaloo coast is also highly biological as broken coral pieces are further eroded by wave action, Parrotfish “chew” coral and deliver fine sediment in their faces and mollusk shell pieces are eroded (Dudley, 2003).
Biogeographical Interactions
The Ningaloo Coast is notable for its very high biodiversity. Over 300 documented coral species of coral are present on the Ningaloo Coast. Reef building corals are the keystone species as they provide the habitat for all other species in the ecosystem. The coral polyps has a symbiotic relationship with the algae zooxanthellae.
Over 700 reef fish species, roughly 650 mollusc species, as well as around 600 crustacean species and more than 1,000 species of marine algae all live within the reef. The high numbers of 155 sponge species and 25 new species of echinoderms add to the significance of the area (UNESCO, 2016).
The flora and fauna of the Ningaloo Coast have developed a range of adaptations to inhabit ecological niches. These physiological and behavioural adaptations include camouflage, symbiosis, territoriality and distinct breeding patters. An example of this is the annual coral spawning that occurs approximately 10 days after the full moon in March or April. Predator relationships, such as the Drupella snail are thought to have a positive effect on diversity of their prey by pruning faster growing corals.
Ningaloo also forms the habitat for several high value species including Marine mammals such as dugongs, Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), Manta Rays, many species of turtle (including loggerhead and Green turtles).
The whale shark is known to migrate globally making Ningaloo an important site ecologically. Whale sharks congregate at Ningaloo between March and July. While the exact purpose of these congregations are unknown, it is believed to be a feeding event (Tourism Western Australia, 2016).
The Ningaloo Coast is notable for its very high biodiversity. Over 300 documented coral species of coral are present on the Ningaloo Coast. Reef building corals are the keystone species as they provide the habitat for all other species in the ecosystem. The coral polyps has a symbiotic relationship with the algae zooxanthellae.
Over 700 reef fish species, roughly 650 mollusc species, as well as around 600 crustacean species and more than 1,000 species of marine algae all live within the reef. The high numbers of 155 sponge species and 25 new species of echinoderms add to the significance of the area (UNESCO, 2016).
The flora and fauna of the Ningaloo Coast have developed a range of adaptations to inhabit ecological niches. These physiological and behavioural adaptations include camouflage, symbiosis, territoriality and distinct breeding patters. An example of this is the annual coral spawning that occurs approximately 10 days after the full moon in March or April. Predator relationships, such as the Drupella snail are thought to have a positive effect on diversity of their prey by pruning faster growing corals.
Ningaloo also forms the habitat for several high value species including Marine mammals such as dugongs, Whale sharks (Rhincodon typus), Manta Rays, many species of turtle (including loggerhead and Green turtles).
The whale shark is known to migrate globally making Ningaloo an important site ecologically. Whale sharks congregate at Ningaloo between March and July. While the exact purpose of these congregations are unknown, it is believed to be a feeding event (Tourism Western Australia, 2016).
3. The nature and rate of change which affects ecosystem functioning
Tropical cyclones are a key natural stress for the Ningaloo coast. The strong winds and waves damage coral structures and the high rainfall can result in freshwater pooling. In response the outskirts of reefs tend to grow less delicate branching corals. Areas that have been destroyed are also able to be recolonised by neighbouring coral and the annual coral spawn.
Corals thrive in locations that also happen to be near their physiological limits, making them sensitive to stresses caused by sea temperature anomalies resulting in the phenomenon known as coral bleaching (AIM, 2016). When stressed by high temperatures the symbiotic relationship between coral polyps and the zooxanthellae algae breaks down and is expelled resulting in bleaching events. This is not necessarily lethal for the coral, however repair may take 10-20 years and greater frequencies of coral bleaching will result in the death of the decline of the coral cover.
Predator-Prey dynamics are common factors affecting coral reefs globally. Ningaloo's reefs are not heavily affected by the crown of thorns starfish. However, outbreaks of Drupella (a type of snail) have drastically reduced coral cover, destroying 90% of corals in parts of the northern reef at Ningaloo Reef in 1997 (Reef Resilience, 2016).
Corals thrive in locations that also happen to be near their physiological limits, making them sensitive to stresses caused by sea temperature anomalies resulting in the phenomenon known as coral bleaching (AIM, 2016). When stressed by high temperatures the symbiotic relationship between coral polyps and the zooxanthellae algae breaks down and is expelled resulting in bleaching events. This is not necessarily lethal for the coral, however repair may take 10-20 years and greater frequencies of coral bleaching will result in the death of the decline of the coral cover.
Predator-Prey dynamics are common factors affecting coral reefs globally. Ningaloo's reefs are not heavily affected by the crown of thorns starfish. However, outbreaks of Drupella (a type of snail) have drastically reduced coral cover, destroying 90% of corals in parts of the northern reef at Ningaloo Reef in 1997 (Reef Resilience, 2016).
The nature and rate of change which affects ecosystem functioning
Coral Polyps are a finely tuned species with a very narrow range of tolerance. This makes them quite vulnerable.
There are a wide variety of changes which affect the ecosystem. These might be natural or made made. And might be very gradual or rapid and catastrophic.
Rapid Changes
i.Tides
Medium Changes
i.Ocean Acidification
i.Sea Surface Temperatures
Slow Changes
Coral Polyps are a finely tuned species with a very narrow range of tolerance. This makes them quite vulnerable.
There are a wide variety of changes which affect the ecosystem. These might be natural or made made. And might be very gradual or rapid and catastrophic.
Rapid Changes
i.Tides
- Tides affect the vertical extent of the coral.
- Tides are a response to the sun and moon’s gravitational pull on the earth’s water.
- Weather changes daily and the Ningaloo area is prone to heat waves in summer months.
- Heat stress causes the coral to exclude the zooxantellae algea which can result in coral bleaching.
- Increased bleaching will cause starvation, killing the coral.
- Tropical cyclones cause extreme wind and wave action. They also result in a storm surge.
- This violent action can damage the reef structure.
- Fresh water pooling can also cause stress on coral.
Medium Changes
i.Ocean Acidification
- Ocean water naturally has a pH of 7.5-8.5. Coral polyps exude an exoskeleton of limestone. This skeleton forms the structure of the reef which many other organisms use as their habitat.
- Ocean pH is subject to change as it forms a dynamic equilibrium with atmospheric CO2
i.Sea Surface Temperatures
- Ocean/Atmospheric exchanges (La Niña/El Niño)
- 2010/2011 strong La Niña event pushed water south from Indonesia creating far higher temperatures than the seasonal average and a very large coral bleaching event resulted.
Slow Changes
- Sea level
- Tectonic Movement
4. Human Impacts
The is conflicting aims for the use of the Gascoyne region. Tourism puts pressure on preservation of the reef while mineral exploration places the extraction of resources at higher value.
i. Development (-ve)
ii. Tourism (-ve/+ve)
iii. Military Activity (-ve)
iv. Mining (-ve)
v. Fishing, Snorkelling and other water activities (-ve)
vi. Feral Animals
vii. Climate change and Sea level rise (-ve)
viii. Environmental Management (+ve)
ix. World Heritage Listing (+ve)
i. Development (-ve)
- Proposed development of “Maud’s Landing” was highly controversial as it threatened to disturb loggerhead turtle breeding areas. Although it did not proceed it was partly responsible for the World Heritage listing.
- Any development of the region places additional pressure on numerous aspects of local ecology:
- The water cycle is disturbed and waste water/sewage are generated
- Construction and dredging activities generate turbidity.
- Additional human activity is generated and pushed into remote areas
- Animal breading habits may be disturbed.
- In 2012 Tony Abbott made an election promise to “develop the north” and encourage future development in the region. This approach was favoured by both sides of politics. Colin Barnett the Western Australian Premier has also long held a pro development stance. The Gascoyne Development Commission is a Western Australian Government statutory authority dedicated to the economic and social development of the region.
ii. Tourism (-ve/+ve)
- Tourism is the number one economic driver in Gascoyne region, followed by fishing, retail, mining, horticulture and pastoral industries. A report produced in 2009 by the Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre estimated that expenditure in the region for the year ending September 2008 was $141 million, with 179,352 visitors staying for an average of 9.92 nights.
- The Visitor Composition in 2011-2013 was 80% Domestic and 20% International tourists. However, a short term goal is to build cruise ship birthing ports in the area. Tourism in the area area is primarily self drive and there is limited air access.
- Ningaloo’s pristine environment ironically attracts people which has a damaging effect on the reef. Snorkelling and fishing are the main tourist activities and both can be highly sustainable if managed well. The remoteness of Ningaloo reef tends to attract a nature loving type of tourist.
iii. Military Activity (-ve)
- Learmonth Air Weapons Range Facility covers about 18,954 hectares is used for military exercises and as a bombing range.
- It was one of Australia's most active bombing ranges until around 1990. Exmouth also has a significant history of US naval presence. The Federal Government’s 2016 Defence White Paper allocates an investment of over $400 million into Exmouth to develop missile defence and space capabilities; including the relocation of a space surveillance telescope to be set up near the Harold E Holt Naval Communication Station and the Learmonth RAAF Base.
- Future bombing activities on the Learmonth Air Weapons range may pose a potential threat, in particular to the Bundera sinkhole which is located on Defence Land. A 2009 review of Department of Defence ranges recommended its continued use in the future.
- Although Defence Land within the heritage site is subject to the EPBC Act, the act may be countermanded if this is “in the interests of Australia’s defence or security, or in relation to a national emergency”.
iv. Mining (-ve)
- Both BP and Royal Dutch Shell have bid to conduct test drills for hydrocarbon resources as close at 48 kilometres from the Commonwealth marine park boundary.
- Shell was given approval for exploration 50km west of Ningaloo in July 2011 and Fortescue Metals submitted an application to explore for minerals along a 500km stretch of WA coastline but later recalled the application.
- In addition to the increased risk of oil spills the seismic vibrations impact on sea turtles, fish and whales that frequent the area.
- Hydrocarbon mining also bring an increased frequency of shipping activity which raises the risk from oil spills and exotic introductions from ballast water.
- The Exmouth gulf has also faced plans for a salt mining operation. This has been protested by WWF and an group called Halt the Salt! primarily on the grounds of damage to associated ecosystems like mangroves forests.
v. Fishing, Snorkelling and other water activities (-ve)
- The Ningaloo Marine reserve is multi use zone with many commercial activities, such as fishing not permitted. However, multiple small scale operators can also have an impact.
- Anchor drop is a major impact that results from fishing, diving and snorkelling vessels and can result in significant damage to coral structures. Cruise ship anchor activity has significantly larger impacts. This damage is easily avoided with mooring bouys.
- Reef walking and snorkelling are both highly ranked tourism experiences, but both are high impact activities.
- Tourism activities disturb breading patterns, although strict behaviour is required when encountering animals such as Whale Sharks.
vi. Feral Animals
- Weeds, Cats and foxes are all common feral species on the Ningaloo coastline. They reduce vegetation which lowers water quality and affect various trophic levels.
- Exotic predation places stress on species unaccustomed to predators.
- Foxes are a significant problem for turtle hatching and the area is also likely to be within the distribution of can toads in the future.
vii. Climate change and Sea level rise (-ve)
- Probably the biggest threat to the reef
- Extreme heat bleaches coral
- Climate temperature rises enhance the frequency and severity of tropical cyclones
- Greater stress makes coral more susceptible to pest out breaks like Crown of Thorns
- Sea level rises mean coral cannot adapt quickly enough
- Ocean acidification (changes negatively from around 8) mean that coral cannot build its limestone structures and prevents growth and repair.
viii. Environmental Management (+ve)
- The scientific management of ecosystems is improving and Ningaloo coast’s isolation meant there were fewer visitors in the era of poorly behaved tourism. Tourists and development now face stricter controls.
- The Ningaloo Collaboration Cluster is a major research project that commenced in the region in 2007.
- The project involves researchers from the CSIRO, Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research Centre and a range of Australian Universities including Uni of Western Australia, ANU and Uni of Queensland.
- The project will deliver a dynamic model of Ningaloo incorporating socioeconomic and environmental load implications of human activity in the region that can be integrated with an ecological model of the region with the aim of developing planning tools and management models to ensure sustainable use of the region.
ix. World Heritage Listing (+ve)
- Inscribed in 2011
- World heritage status places international pressure on government to protect the area.
Management Strategies
- Traditional Management
o Jinigudira people occupied most of Ningaloo Coast from Northern tip. Baiyungu people occupied the southern portion of the reef coast.
o Under traditional law, Aboriginal people are responsible for, and obliged to protect, preserve and manage areas, sites and objects of Aboriginal significance associated with their country.
o Traditional management includes protection and preservation of physical sites and objects as well as the traditional knowledge and practices pertaining to them.
o The “meaning” of the land is also important as it reveals the record of creation and the history (The events of Dreamtime).
o These responsibilities and obligations are of continuing importance to Aboriginal people, particularly with respect to teaching cultural heritage to the young.
o The Gnulli Native Title claim (represented by the Yamatji Land and Sea Council) may also see this land management continued.
o Hunting of dugong and turtle are an example of finding a balance between contemporary and traditional management practices
o Coral Coastal Park demonstrates cooperation between Gnulli Working Group, Baiyungu traditional owners and CALM to facilitate Aboriginal involvement in management of the Ningaloo Marine Park and the Cape Range National Park.
- Contemporary Management
o Management uses multiple reserve zones and restricted use areas.
o Area is managed for conservation and recreation and management plans have been developed to protect environmental, social and economic values.
o There are numerous State/Commonwealth laws that govern Ningaloo reef (Legislation):
- Wildlife Conservation Act (1950),
- Environmental Protection Act (1986),
- The Aboriginal Heritage Act (1972) and the Conservation and Land Management Act (exception: pastoral leaseholds) (1984).
- The entire marine component is subject to the Fish Resources Management Act (1994).
- World Heritage Listing in 2011 provides additional pressures on Governments to protect the reef.
- Research and scientific investigation is utilised to ensure management plans are effective. Plans are redrawn as needed.
- Ningaloo Collaboration cluster
- Technology aids ecological management
- Robot sensors used to scan sea floor
- Tourist photos of whales sharks are used to collect a movement database
- Visitors to the area are educated through signs and guides. Such as rules for whale shark and whale watching.
- Evaluation of management
o Contemporary management is only as effective as the will to protect the ecosystem it is. Changes in attitude could make the management of the reef more secure or more at risk very quickly.
o International involvement, such as the World Heritage listing, places additional requirements on Governments to protect the coastline.
o However, International threats also pose the greatest risk to the ecosystem and it is most threatened by climate change, which is beyond the control of Australian governments. (Were it up to the Abbott-Coalition government there would be little protection on climate change anyway.)
The verdict: The Ningaloo coast is one of the best preserved reef systems in the world however sustainability in not ensured. It requires continued valuing by by Australian community. Global forces such as global warming are major threats that are beyond local control.
Further Reading
http://ningaloo-atlas.org.au/
http://www.planning.wa.gov.au/dop_pub_pdf/2_Coastal_Environment.pdf
http://www.aims.gov.au/docs/research/climate-change/position-paper.html
http://www.planning.wa.gov.au/dop_pub_pdf/2_Coastal_Environment.pdf
http://www.aims.gov.au/docs/research/climate-change/position-paper.html